Continuity and Change— Material Culture and Jewish History · 2020. 7. 1. · 2 Cecil Roth, Jewish Art. 324; see also Grace Grossman, Jewish Art. (New York: Beaux Art Publications) - [PDF Document] (2024)

Continuity and Change—

Material Culture and Jewish History

Wesleyan University and Congregation Adath Israel

Middletown, Spring 2011

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture2

In Spring 2011, Wesleyan University and the Congregation AdathIsrael in Middletown began to discuss possible collaborative workaround the Judaica collection housed at the Congregation AdathIsrael. The museum was created out of a passion for Judaica byNathan and Shirley Shapiro, and has been cared for by their son,Stephen Shapiro. Located within steps of each other, Adath Israeland Wesleyan University rarely collaborated on projects. WesleyanUniversity “Service Learning Center” has opened up a new venue forsuch collaboration. After a few months of preparation, my classHIST 267: “Out of the Ghetto: Jews of Eastern Europe” became thefirst to work with Adath Israel’s collection. Students in thiscourse, alongside regular assignments for a history course, workedon select objects from the AI’s collection. They attended workshopsand lectures focused on “reading” artifacts with Professor ShalomSabar, an art historian from Hebrew University; they visited theJewish Museum and the Tenement Museum in New York to get a sense ofpossibilities objects offer for studying history. Finally, studentsembarked on the project of crafting a catalogue description ofobjects said to originate from eastern Europe, and of writingpapers, in which they investigated of the history behind theobjects. They elaborated on, and sometimes corrected, the existingrecord. This is the fruit of their work. Sometimes, objectsconsidered were typical of east European Jewish cultural production– such as the fish spice box or the large Hanukkah lamp, typical ofHasidic east European Hanukkah menorahs. Sometimes, they discoveredan unknown use of objects, as for example, the woodennoisemaker,

that had been thought to be a Purim grogger, but had in fact avery different use! We photographed the objects, renumbered them,since some of the existing numbers were inconsistent, or evenerroneous. The new numbering system consists of the year (2011).Semester (S, for Spring), class number (267), and the objectnumber, as well as in parenthesis the original number in the AIInventory—if such in fact existed. This new system will not onlygive each item a unique number, but it will also become a permanenthistorical record of the students’ work. This is but the first stepof what we hope will be years of fruitful collaboration. We want toexpress our thanks to the Service Learning Center and the Jewishand Israel Studies Program at Wesleyan University for support, andof course, to the Congregation Adath Israel for their permission tolet us work on their wonderful collection.

Magda Teter The Jeremy Zwelling Chair in Jewish and IsraelStudies Director of the Jewish and Israel Studies Program

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture4

TABLE OF CONTENTS 5 A Decorative Torah Pointer—A Reflection OnJewish

Attitudes Towards Art Julia Fram ‘12

11 A Living Out The Word Of God—Animal Imagery In

Judaica Ali Newman ‘12

16 A History Of Mezuzot—Examination Of A Nineteenth-

Century Mezuzah Joanna Schiffman ‘11

22 A 19th-Century Mezuzah As An Intersection Between

Religious Tradition And A Local Moment Daniel Krantz ‘11

27 The Sabbath Lights Jessica Titlebaum ‘14

32 The End Of The Sabbath—A Fish Spice Box

Jonathan Sheehan ‘11 35 The Buzz About Purim—A Study Of TwoNoisemakers

Sewon Kang ‘14 44 Hanukiah (Or Hanukkah Menorah)

Jared Gimbel ‘11

50 Contextualizing A Traveling Menorah

Elana Scudder ‘11 55 Symbol And Symbolism—Jewish Art and A 19thCentury

Polish Yahrzeit Cup In Historic Context Zachary Steinman ‘13

61 The Tools for the Shehitah Aaron Eidman ‘12 65 Meat Cleaver-An Interpretation

Emily Schubert ‘12

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture5

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture6

Torah Pointer. 9 x 3 in. [at widest point] x ½ in. [at tallestpoint] (22.86 x 7.62 x 1.27 cm). Brass, cast, welded, and engraved.2011.S.267.1 (no previous inventory number)

A DECORATIVE TORAH POINTER:

A REFLECTION ON JEWISH ATTITUDES TOWARDS ART

Julia Fram ‘12

The content and style of this brass Torah pointer is

standard of pointers and ritual art made in Poland at the turnof the 20th Century but unusual in terms of its form. A pointer isa tool used to indicate ones’ place when reading from the Torah,the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. Pointers of EasternEuropean origins are usually made of metal, such as copper alloysor silver, although wooden pointers are not uncommon.1 Handles ofpointers are typically cylindrical, between 6 and 14 inches inlength, and terminate in a figurine of a hand that has oneoutstretched finger.2 Traditionally, a Torah Pointer is referred toas a “yad,” which means “hand” in Hebrew. This name not only callsto mind the structure of the yad, but also highlights how one usesthe pointer to track the text when reading as if it were anextension of their hand. It is important for the pointer to be easyto hold so the reader can avoid directly touching the Torah.Pointers can be ascribed a very practical role in Jewish ceremony,both protecting the Torah scroll from damage and facilitating itsreading.

On one end of the pointer from the Adath Israel Collection is ahand with an outstretched finger. The other features a crown andtwo lion figurines. Connecting the two ends is a 1 Cecil Roth,Jewish Art: An Illustrated History. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961)324. 2 Cecil Roth, Jewish Art. 324; see also Grace Grossman, JewishArt. (New York: Beaux Art Publications) 109.

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture7

curved handle cast of brass that resembles a tree trunk thatculminates in an arbor of four branches. A vine winds around thetree trunk shaft, which is engraved with small flowers.

The crown, a brass casting with a small loop at its tip, iswelded to the two branches farthest away from the pointer’soutstretched finger. The lions, welded to the main column mainly bytheir feet, have engraved features and face outwards, creating asymmetrical effect with the handle and crown serving as an axis.The pointer, made entirely of brass, is smooth and a golden colorwith a brown sheen. The object is heavy and due to itsnon-cylindrical shape, difficult to grasp in one hand. The styleand content of this specific pointer suggests that it was likelymade in Poland in either the late 19th or early 20th centuries. Thepair of ferocious lions are evocative of both traditional Jewishiconography along with the Polish folk aesthetic of symmetry. Thelions might represent the Tribe of Judah, a symbol deriving itsmeaning from the moment in the book of Genesis when Judah’s fatherJacob compares Judah to a lion and implies that the Messiah will bea descendent of Judah.3 A second potential interpretation of thelions relates to a segment from Pirke Avot, a rabbinic text, whichstates that a man must be, “strong as a lion [to do the will of thyfather.]” 4 In addition to the symbolic significance of the lionsto Jewish culture, the pair of identical lions, 3 Harold W.Attridge, The HarperCollins Study Bible (New York: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2006), 79; Roth, Jewish Art, 314. 4 “Ceremonial andDecorative Art.” YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. 20Apr, 2011; ;Maurice Berger, Masterworks of the Jewish Museum (NewHaven: Yale University Press, 2004), 40.

facing away from each other, creates a striking symmetry acrossa vertical axis. This symmetrical effect is a common characteristicof Polish folk Art.5 The handle has been fashioned to resemble atree with four branches, interspersed flowers and a vine thatmeanders its way to the top of the tree’s arbor. It is possiblethat this resemblance is meant to symbolize the Tree of Life or theTree of Good and Evil, both mentioned the first few chapters of thebook of Genesis in the story of Adam and Eve. In addition, it isalso possible that the form of the handle has been influenced bylocal Polish folk art. Natural themes were often expressed in theart of Polish peasants, reflecting their predominant roles asfarmers, trapped by the feudal system.6 Jews too lived in ruralareas and likely were influenced by the major presence of plantsand animals in the art of their Polish neighbors. Perhaps thetraditions of Polish folk art along with the shared ruralsurroundings of Poles and Jews inspired the natural essence of thisspecific Torah pointer. While the imagery and many aspects of thestyle of the pointer are generally consistent with that of theJewish ritual art made in Poland during the late 19th and early20th centuries, the object is somewhat atypical because of itsform. The pointer is quite heavy and difficult to grasp with onehand. Due to the significant function of yads, they are usuallydesigned to be smaller and easier to handle and attempting to usethis specific pointer to facilitate the reading of the Torah wouldlikely be a challenge. The weight and

5 Ewa Frys-Pietraskowa, Folk Art in Poland (Warszawa: ArkadyPress, 1991), 41, 122. 6 Joseph Gutmann, Beauty in Holiness, 6.

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture8

awkward shape of the object suggests that the pointer wascrafted to fulfill not a ritualistic role, but a decorativeone.

Perhaps the object was a gift to a synagogue to commemorate itsopening or maybe a present for a recent bar mitzvah. While there isnot sufficient information to determine if the object was craftedfor a specific occasion and what that occasion might be, if oneassumes that the object has a decorative purpose, it is possible tomake further insights about the cultural values and economicsituation of the object’s owner and community of origin. First ofall, the creation of an object for an ornamental purpose, suggeststhat an individual, a group, or a community were sufficientlyaffluent to purchase or commission the decorative pointer. Theeconomic condition of the owners must have been somewhat stable toafford the purchase of what might be considered a luxury good.

The ornamental nature of the pointer implies that at the time ofits creation, there must have been a market for decorative ritualobjects and, thus, that people considered decorative ceremonialobjects to have value. This concept is quite striking consideringthe interesting relationship between the traditional Jewishreligion and visual art. There has been a prevalent conception thatJudaism might not value or even condone visual art.7 Many scholarscite the second commandment in Exodus, Chapter 20 as evidence forthis notion. 8The text states, “You shall not make for yourself anidol, whether in the form of anything that is in heaven above, orthat is on earth beneath or that is in the water

7 Shalom Sabar, lecture “Workshop at Adath Israel with ProfessorShalom Sabar,” 12 Apr, 2011. Middletown, CT. 8 Guttman, Beauty inHoliness, xi.

under them. You shall not bow down to them or worship them.”9This statement in itself is somewhat unclear and doesn’t explicitlyprohibit the making of art or images but instead seems to forbidthe making of images that one would worship. Furthermore, about 10chapters later, the first documented Jewish artist, Bezalel, isintroduced in the text. The initial reaction of many is to acceptthe intent of the text as a prohibition against creating art,resulting in an undetermined place for art in Judaism.10

In time, however, attitudes towards the place of art in Judaismhas altered as authorities began to encourage the decoration andcreation of objects used in religious ceremonies. The yad, oneamong other accessory objects for the Torah, that was first createdin the Middle Ages and became widespread later in the modernperiod.11 A number of objects that today many might assume dateback to antiquity and times of the Mishnah and Talmud, likepointers and Torah Crowns, were in fact introduced into the Jewishtradition in more recent times. While many factors contributed tothe creation and induction of these ritual objects into Jewishceremonial custom, the influence of local cultures on Jewishcommunities in different geographic regions for example, the driveto satisfy the rabbinic concept of hiddur mitzvot likelycontributed greatly to this trend.12 Hiddur mitzvot refers to theexpectation that when someone is performing a mitzvah, such as 9Harold Attridge, HarperCollins Study Bible. New York: HarperOnce(2006) 117. 10 Shalom Sabar, lecture “Workshop at Adath Israel withProfessor Shalom Sabar,” 12 Apr, 2011. Middletown, CT. 11 Vivian B.Mann, “Spirituality and Jewish Ceremonial Art,” Artibus etHistoriae 24, no. 48 (2003), 173. 12 Roth, Jewish Art, 310.

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture9

when they read from the Torah, attempts should be made toglorify the act as much as possible, often resulting in thedecoration and inclusion of elaborate ritual objects in Jewishceremonies.13

Many Jewish artists have taken advantage of the comparative easeof creating intricate pointers, which at times can be moreaffordable and manageable objects to craft relative to other ritualobjects due to their small size and there extremely significantrole in the Torah service, resulting in a diverse array ofelaborately decorated pointers. 14 Pointers are, however, usuallycrafted to be easy to hold so while artists often experiment interms of decorative aspects of the objects, the form is somewhatconsistent among pointers. The effort by artisans in makingpointers reflects the perceived relationship between making apointer beautiful and showing honor to God prescribed by therabbinic understanding of Hiddur Mitzvot. For example, the pointerof interest has a brass crown welded to the end of the handleopposite the extended hand. The presence of the crown might serveto emphasize and praise the object’s connection to the Torah. Inaddition to the regal associations connected to crowns and royalty,historically, the term “crown,” has been used to represent theTorah. 15

This decorative pointer represents an even further developmentin Jewish attitudes towards art. The community or owner of apointer which could not be used in religious ceremony due to theshape were probably able to recognize and value the

13 Vivian B. Mann, The Jewish Museum, New York (New York: ScalaBooks, 1993), 31. 14 Roth, Jewish Art, 324 15 Joseph Gutmann,Beauty in Holiness: Studies in Jewish Customs and Ceremonial Art(New York: Ktav Publishing House, 1970),93.

visual aspects of the pointer apart from its ritualsignificance. This assertion is consistent with changing approachesto Jewish culture by Eastern European Jews in the 18th, 19th, and20th centuries, who, surrounded by the shifting political andcultural scenery of Eastern Europe, began to perceive Jewishidentity and culture much differently. In the 19th century, therewas a decline in observance among Eastern European Jews, many ofwhom began to assimilate into local communities.16 Often associatedwith the secularization of many Jews was the application of thescientific analysis central to Enlightenment philosophy to thestudy of Jewish ritual art and other cultural tradition.17 For thefirst time, many Jews, eager to understand and preserve theirJewish heritage but also, slightly distanced from the religion,were to perceive and study visual culture, in a way that was notcompletely biased by their connections to Jewish ritual and itsmeaning. 18 Moreover, not just visual aspects of Jewish culturewere reexamined under this new lens. For example, at the turn ofthe century, Simon Dubnow, a preeminent Jewish scholar from Russiawho had lost touch with the religious aspects of Judaism andexperienced political change and violence towards Jews in Russia,produced historical writing that was highly influenced by theeffect of the Enlightenment on his native Russia and the emergingpolitical movements of a society consisting of multiplenationalities and economic sectors than ever before, all strugglingto define themselves.19 16 Berger, Masterworks of the Jewish,Museum, 90. 17 Guttman, Beauty in Holiness, vii. 18Mann, The JewishMuseum, New York, 9. 19 R. Seltzer “From Graetz to Dubnow: TheImpact of the East European Milieu on the Wrtiing of JewishHistory: in The Legacy of Jewish Migration: 1881 and its Impact ed.D. Berger, 50 , 54-55.

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture10

The changing attitudes of Jews towards visual culture areevidenced by new movements observed in the late 19th and early 20thcenturies to collect Judaica and establish Jewish museums. Forexample, in 1904, Judge Mayer Sulzbeger donated a large number ofhistorical documents to the Jewish Theological Seminary of America.This initial collection eventually became The Jewish Museum in NewYork. A large number of other major museums and collections werealso established in Europe at this time, such as the Jewish Museumof Warsaw in 1910.20 Like Dubnow who applied scientific thought tointerpret Jewish history during the late 19th and early 20thcenturies, many other Jews acted to study, collect, and shareJudaica due to their progressive ability to see ceremonial objectsfor their artistic and historic value, not only their ritualisticmeaning. The content, style, and form of the brass pointer exhibitscharacteristics consistent with ancient Jewish traditions but alsothat reflect the time of its creation at the turn of the 20thcentury in Poland. For example, the decorative figurines that havebeen cast and welded to the yad are likely meant to representJewish symbols that have existed since antiquity and are explicitlymentioned in the Torah such as the Tree of Life, the Lions ofJudah, and the crown while the style in which these Jewish symbolswere represented and symmetrically arranged exhibit the influenceof Polish folk art. Furthermore, the weight and unusual shape ofthe pointer which would render it almost impossible to use for itsritualistic purpose in the Torah service suggests that that thepointer was crafted to serve a decorative purpose for either anindividual or a community who had enough money to spare for anornamental object. The 20 Mann, The Jewish Museum, New York, 9.

appreciation of ritual objects for simply their decorative valuewould mark a further change from antiquity. Furthermore, thisprogression reflects a new approach to the understanding of visualculture in the Jewish tradition and is likely related to trendsamong Eastern European Jews involving assimilation into localcommunities and use of Enlightened approaches to analyze, connectwith, understand, and preserve Jewish culture.

Bibliography

Ameisenowa, Zofja. “The Tree of Life in Jewish Iconography.”Journal of the Warburg Institute 2, no. 4 (1939): 326-414.

Attridge, Harold W. The HarperCollins Study Bible. New York,HarperOne, 2006

Berger, Maurice. Masterworks of the Jewish Museum. New Haven:Yale University Press, 2004.

Cohen, Richard I. “Exhibiting History or History in a Showcase.”Jewish History 12, no. 2 (1998): 97-112.

Frys-Pietraszkowa, Ewa. Folk Art in Poland. Warszawa: ArkadyPress, 1991.

Grossman, Grace. Jewish Art. New York: Beaux Art Publications,1998.

Gutmann, Joseph. Beauty in Holiness: Studies in Jewish Customsand Ceremonial Art. New York: Ktav Publishing House, 1970.

Mann, Vivian B. “Ceremonial and Decorative Art.” YIVOEncyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe.http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Ceremonial_and_Decorative_Art(accessed April 20, 2011).

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture11

Mann, Vivian B. The Jewish Museum, New York. New York: ScalaBooks, 1993.

Mann, Vivian B. “Spirituality and Jewish Ceremonial Art.”Artibus et Historiae 24, no. 48 (2003): 173-182

Rabinowitz, Louis. “Yad.” In Encyclopedia Judaica, edited byFred Skolnik, 264. Detroit, Mich.: Macmillan Reference USA,2007.

Roth, Cecil. Jewish Art: An Illustrated History. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1961.

Sed-Rajna. Gabrielle. Jewish art. New York: Harry N. Abrams,1997.

Seltzer, Robert M., “From Graetz to Dubnow: The Impact of theEast European Milieu on the Writing of Jewish History,” in TheLegacy of Jewish Migration: 1881 and its Impact. Ed. David Berger,49-60. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983.

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture12

Tefillin Covers Poland, late 18th or 19th century 2 in. x 1 ½in. x 3 in. Silver or silver-plated brass, repoussé, engraved2011.S.267.2a and 2b (#72) This pair of silver or silver platedhollow boxes contains several detailed engraved images of plantsand animals on their tops and sides. These images of flora andfauna are consistent with others produced in 18th century easternEurope Judaica. The front faces of the boxes are decorated with astrong, large male lion baring his teeth and standing on his hindlegs. He is also wielding a staff with the Star of David on top ofit in front of him. On the left side of the boxes is an engravingof an eagle or a falcon, perched on a branch with its wings spread,as if it is ready to take off or it just landed. An image of asingle palm tree on top of some grass covers the right side of thebox. Both of the boxes display an image of a gazelle, about to leapover a patch of grass. These four images around the sides are thesame on both of the boxes, though not

identical. The only explicit difference between the two boxes isvisible on the top covers. Both covers are engraved with an imageof two lions standing on their hind legs, with their bodies facingthe center and their heads turned facing outward with their mouthsbared open. There is a crown set in between them, as well as someHebrew letters. One box reads Shin-resh (shel rosh), telling thewearer that box is for the head, while the other box says Shin-yud(shel yad), or for the arm. The letters are the only majordifference between the two boxes. One interesting thing to noteabout the engravings, with the exception of the image of the palmtree, is that all of the animals depicted seem to be in action ormotion. Ali Newman ‘12

LIVING OUT THE WORD OF GOD: ANIMAL IMAGERY IN

JUDAICA

Ali Newman ‘12

Tefillin, two small boxes with straps attached to them thatcontain Hebrew texts that Jewish men are required to place one boxon their head and tie the other one on their arm each weekdaymorning as a reminder to keep the law of God, are biblical inorigin. They are commanded within the context of several lawsoutlining a Jew's relationship to God:

And these words, which I command you this day, shall be in yourheart: And you shall teach them diligently to your

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture13

children, and shall talk of them when you sit in your house, andwhen you walk by the way, and when you lie down, and when you riseup. And you shall bind them for a sign on your hand, and they shallbe as frontlets between your eyes. And you shall write them on theposts of your house, and on your gates.21

To fulfill the commandment to “bind” the texts to “your head”and “between your eyes,” boxes called tefillin were developed thatcontained the sets of biblical verses in which this was commanded.Many of these boxes were similar to this pair of engraved silvertefillin covers from eighteenth or nineteenth century Poland, andwere crafted by Jews and non-Jews alike. The tefillin alsorepresent the tradition of the Oral Torah. The Torah was intendedto be a part of the everyday life of the Jewish people, and assuch, its tradition could not simply remain in a book. The Law ofGod was passed along by word of mouth until finally it was writtendown in the form of the Talmud, and the practice of wearingtefillin in everyday life is a continuation of the tradition of theOral Torah. This shows that following the Law of God goes beyondreading the Torah and the Talmud, and involves an activeparticipation in daily life—wearing tefillin is a great way ofactively living out the Law of God. Beyond their religioussignificance and historical origins, these tefillin boxes are aprime example of the importance of material culture and itsconnection to religion and history, as we can learn much about “thebeliefs—values, ideas, attitudes, and assumptions—of a particularcommunity or society at a given 21 Deut, 6:6-9 (American King JamesVersion)

time;” in this case, the Jewish community during the eighteenthand nineteenth centuries.22 Because “gold and silver-smithery wasone of the characteristic Jewish occupations in most countries…itis believed that from early times until the modern era, Jews in theEastern countries were responsible for the manufacture” of objectssuch as these tefillin covers, menorahs, mezuzahs, spice boxes, andother Judaica.23 Jews often used these artifacts to create a visualrepresentation of the important teachings of the Torah and Talmudas a reminder to carry out their practices in everyday life. Thesecovers serve more than just a practical purpose—they are works ofart, and because of this they “constitute a large and specialcategory within artifacts because of their inevitable aesthetic andoccasional ethical or spiritual (iconic) dimensions,” which makesthem “direct and often overt of intentional expressions of culturalbelief.”24 Perhaps the most interesting aspect of these tefillincovers is the imagery engraved on the top and sides of the boxesand the symbolism of these images. The two boxes contain imagery offlora and fauna that is consistent with other eighteenth andnineteenth century Judaica. By the eighteenth century, “the typesof Judaica arriving…were transformed under the influence of EastEuropean art produced by both Christian and Jewish professional,”and it is at this point when we begin to see the emergence of“flora and fauna…overwhelm[ing] the traditional

22 Jules Prown, "Mind Matter: an Introduction to MaterialCulture Theory and

Method," Winterthur Portfolio 17, no. 1 (Spring 1982): 1 23Cecil Roth, "Jewish Ritual Art" in Jewish Art: An IllustratedHistory (New York: McMillan, 1961), 311 24 Prown, “Mind Matter,”2

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture14

tower form of objects such as the spice container” with “imagesof fruit, flowers, animals, and birds.”25 The front face of both ofthe boxes displays an image of a deer, about to leap over a patchof grass. The deer evokes an image of beauty, grace and swiftnessin almost every culture, but it holds a particular importance forJews: The Hebrew word for deer is Tzvi, and it was used to describethe Holy Land of Israel, which they referred to as the “Land of theDeer.” The abundance of animals and plants in the Holy Land was asource of pride for the Jews and thus, the deer on the cover mightrepresent the bountiful and plentiful Israel. The image of the deeris consistent with the other images of abundant plant and animallife produced in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Judaica. On theleft side of the boxes is an engraving of an eagle, perched on abranch with its wings spread, as if it is ready to take off or itjust landed. The eagle symbolizes “the wisdom based on the HolyScriptures on its apocrypha, as well on Talmud, Midrash and themystic literature, containing the knowledge from the oral traditionof Torah.”26 Throughout the Bible, God’s power, protection andpresence is represented through the eagle—as Pawel Szkolut notes,this passage from Deuteronomy perfectly depicts the ways in whichthe eagle represented God: 25 “Ceremonial and Decorative Art” YIVOEncyclopedia of Jews in Eastern

Europe. 2010. YIVO Jewish Research Center. 21 Apr, 2011;http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Ceremonial_and_Decorative_Art

26 Pawel Szkolut “The Eagle as the Symbol of Divine Presence andProtection in Ancient Jewish Art .” Studia Judaica 5, no. 1 (2002):1-11.

Like an eagle that stirs up its nest, that flutters over itsyoung, spreading out its wings, catching them, bearing them on itspinions, the Lord above did lead them and there was no foreign godwith him.27 The eagle on the tefillin box is almost a perfectvisual representation of this passage—its wings are spread and islooking down, as if watching over its young, just as God watchesover his creation. Additionally, the eagle is a symbol of mercy inmany cultures, not just in Judaism, so the symbol of the eagle hasmany meanings for Jews: it is at once a reminder of God’s presenceand power in daily life, as well as a representation of his mercyand love for his creation. It is at once a symbol to love, respectand fear.

Tefillin covers (side). 2011.S.267.2a and 2b (#72)

27 Deut 32: 11.

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An image of a single palm tree covers the right side of eachbox. As Professor Shalom Sabar noted in his lecture, the palm treeis the symbol of Judea in the Roman culture, and is also often seenas a visual representation of the Torah, which is referred to asEtz Haim, or Tree of Life. This gives concrete expression to thephrase recited upon returning the Sefer Torah to the Ark: "TheTorah is a Tree of Life to those who hold fast to it, and he whosupports it is happy."28 Additionally, the palm “represented thefecundity of Palestine,” and its visual representation reminds usof the fertile and bountiful land of ancient Judea. Similar to theengravings of the deer and eagle, the palm tree is another visualrepresentation of Jewish history and culture, and serves as areminder of the importance of Torah and carrying out its laws ineveryday life. The backs of the boxes are engraved with a strong,large male lion baring his teeth and standing on his hind legs. Heis also wielding a staff with the Star of David on top of it infront of him. The tops of the boxes are also engraved with twolions standing on their hind legs, with their bodies facing thecenter and their heads turned outward with their mouths bared openand a crown resting safely between them. The lion is perhaps one ofthe most common and important animals in Jewish culture, probablybecause of its direct biblical background. The lion represents theLion of the Tribe of Judah because Jacob refers to his son Judah asa “Young Lion”. Lions were often depicted in a harmonious pair, andhistorians speculate that these lions may be symbolic replacementsof the cherubim that once adorned the Ark of the Tabernacle and theTemple in Jerusalem.29 Lions seem to serve as a link betweenthe

28 Proverbs, 3:18 29 Roth, "Jewish Ritual Art," 312

spiritual and temporal worlds, as a protection of the sacred andholy word of God. The lion, eagle and deer were all very commonimages in eighteenth and nineteenth century Judaica, but it isinteresting that all three are depicted together on these boxesbecause together they illustrate “the Rabbinic dictum (Ethics ofthe Fathers, V, 23) that a man should be bold as a lion, light asan eagle and fleet as a deer to fulfill the will of his Father inHeaven.”30 Whether the maker of the covers was trying to visuallyrecreate this dictum or if he was just using common imagery of thetime is unknown, but either way the use of the animals and palmtree represents the importance of their symbolism in daily lifecenturies after the Torah had been commanded. This use of symbolism“together with an aesthetic…overlaid with the flora and fauna ofthe natural world defined a new branch of Jewish ceremonialart.”31

Bibliography Carson, Cary. "Material Culture History:Scholarship Nobody

Knows" in American Material Culture: The Shape of the Field,eds. Ann Smart Martin and J. Ritchie Garrison (Winterthur:Winterthur Museum, 1997), 401-428

Fine, Steven. Art and Judaism in the Greco-Roman world: Toward aNew Jewish Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Richard Grassby, "Material Culture and Cultural History,"Journal of Interdisciplinary History 35 no. 4 (Spring 2005):591-603

30 Roth, “Jewish Ritual Art,” 313 31 “Ceremonial and DecorativeArt”

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture16

Mann, Vivian B. Ceremonial and Decorative Art. YIVO Encyclopediaof Jews in Eastern Europe. 2010.http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Ceremonial_and_Decorative_Art

Ochs , Vanessa L. “Inventing Jewish Ritual.” Jewish PublisherSociety, 5, 2007. Prown, Jules."Mind Matter: an Introduction toMaterial Culture

Theory and Method," Winterthur Portfolio 17 no. 1 (Spring 1982):1-19

Roth, Cecil. "Jewish Ritual Art" in Jewish ArtL An IllustratedHistory (New York: McMillan, 1961) Szkolut, Pawel. “The Eagle asthe Symbol of Divine Presence and

Protection in Ancient Jewish Art .” Studia Judaica 5, no. 1(2002): 1-11.

Telushkin , Joseph. “Tefillin.” Jewish Virtual Library.http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/tefillin.html.

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture17

Mezuzah Eastern Europe, 19th century 4 inches x 1 ¾ inches.Silver, or silver-plated brass Cast metal, embossed, engraved,punched; parchment Middletown, CT, Adath Israel Museum, presentedin honor of the 60th birthday of Max Edelberg by friends and family2011.S.267.3 (#90)

HISTORY OF MEZUZOT:

EXAMINATION OF A NINETEENTH-CENTURY

MEZUZAH

Joanna Schiffman ‘11

This mezuzah appears to be created by casting metal and perhapsembossing and is composed of what resembles a small castle ortemple and two men, presumably Moses and Aaron. Moses and Aaronwere often depicted in Polish Jewish artifacts, as seen on a PolishTorah cover at the Jewish Museum in New York. An arch with a brassmiddle resides in the center of the piece, between Moses and Aaron.Above the arch is the tallest part of the castle with a windowwhere the Hebrew scroll resides. שדי is the only word on the scrollthat can be seen. Above the window there is what looks to resemblefire or a light, perhaps represented the eternal light that burnsin synagogues, or the burning bush used to communicate with Moses.At the bottom of the mezuzah, below where Moses, Aaron, and thearch strand, there is a single flower. Analysis:

I remember sitting on the floor of the hallway, which had becomea sea of empty cardboard boxes and packing peanuts. It was the daymy parents had coined ‘Grandma moving day.’ The movers had left,the last box had been unpacked, and everyone was excited to sitdown. Suddenly they realized they had forgotten just one thing.Everyone joined me in the hallway and I watched as my

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture18

parents and my grandmother fiddled with small shiny artifact. Mymom held it perfectly slanted as my dad nailed it to the doorpostof my grandma’s new apartment and then the adults quickly recited ashort prayer. As soon as the prayer was finished, everyone breatheda sigh of relief and we all went inside to relax. That night, whenI returned to my house, I noticed we also had a crooked piece ofart on our doorpost. What I did not realize at five years old wasthat mezuzot exist on the doors of many Jewish homes all over theworld, and have for many, many years. A mezuzah is a religiousobject fastened to a doorpost. It consists of a piece of parchmentrolled up and placed in a case with a small hole. Passages fromDeuteronomy chapter six, lines four through nine and chapter 11,lines thirteen to twenty-one32 are 32 Full text that is written onparchment in mezuzot: “Hear, O Israel: the LORD our God, the LORDis one. And thou shalt love the LORD thy God with all thy heart,and with all thy soul, and with all thy might. And these words,which I command thee this day, shall be upon thy heart; and thoushalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk ofthem when thou sittest in thy house, and when thou walkest by theway, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up. And thoushalt bind them for a sign upon thy hand, and they shall be forfrontlets between thine eyes. And thou shalt write them upon thedoor-posts of thy house, and upon thy gates. And it shall come topass, if ye shall hearken diligently unto My commandments which Icommand you this day, to love the LORD your God, and to serve Himwith all your heart and with all your soul, that I will give therain of your land in its season, the former rain and the latterrain, that thou mayest gather in thy corn, and thy wine, and thineoil. And I will give grass in thy fields for thy cattle, and thoushalt eat and be satisfied. Take heed to yourselves, lest yourheart be deceived, and ye turn aside, and serve other gods, andworship them; and the anger of the LORD be kindled against you, andHe shut up the heaven, so that there shall be no rain, and theground shall not yield her fruit; and ye perish quickly from offthe good land which the LORD giveth you. Therefore shall ye

inscribed on the parchment.33 Within this inscription there is aparticular passage that is written twice, both in chapter six, linenine, and chapter eleven, line twenty: “Write them on thedoor-ports of your house and upon the gates.” This instruction fromthe Torah is the reason Jews post mezuzot.34 The specific mezuzahhere from the Adath Israel collection is a small silver, orsilver-plated brass mezuzah from Eastern Europe, likely from thenineteenth century. An arch in the center depicts Moses and Aaronon either side. One of the figures looks as if he is wearing abreastplate, which is a clear way to depict Aaron. The top of themezuzah has three peaks perhaps of a castle. The whole Mezuzah istarnished, with the exception of the middle of the brass center ofthe arch. This, together with the imprecise and unrealistic facesof Moses and Aaron help reveal the object’s age. As demonstrated inthe opening story, mezuzot might often attract little attention.However, in modern times at least, it is customary for religiousJews to kiss it when entering or exiting the door. There are evenstrict rules about when a mezuzah must be affixed. Jews in theDiaspora are instructed to put their mezuzot in place within 30days of moving lay up these My words in your heart and in yoursoul; and ye shall bind them for a sign upon your hand, and theyshall be for frontlets between your eyes. And ye shall teach themyour children, talking of them, when thou sittest in thy house, andwhen thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and whenthou risest up. And thou shalt write them upon the door-posts ofthy house, and upon thy gates; that your days may be multiplied,and the days of your children, upon the land which the LORD sworeunto your fathers to give them, as the days of the heavens abovethe earth.” Deut: 6,4-9, Deut: 11, 13-21 33 "Mezuzah," inEncyclopaedia Judaica, ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik(Detroit: Macmillian Reference USA, 2007). 34 Ben Zion Luria,"Development of the Mezuzah," Dor le-dor. 5, no. 1 (1976).

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture19

to a new home, while in Israel, mezuzot are supposed to be hungthe day of the move.35 In addition, Belle Rosenbaum argues thateven in the Diaspora, if a Jew buys a house, he must hang theMezuzah as soon as he moves in, even if he should not recite theblessing until 30 days later.36 The Hebrew blessing that must berecited when hanging a mezuzah, translated in English is, “Blessedare You, Lord our God, King of the universe, who has sanctified uswith His commandments, and commanded us to affix a mezuzah.”37Mezuzot like this one, although fulfilling the same commandment,have evolved from what they once were. Originally the Torahpassage, the “Shema,” was written on the outside stones ofbuildings. Evidence of this is found dating back to the SeleucidEmpire.38 However, the Greeks from the Seleucid Empire, whichexisted before the Common Era, sought to destroy the Torah, andthey often destroyed or removed the Shema stones. Legend has it, inorder to fulfill the commandment but prevent the text from beingdestroyed, Jews began writing the words on parchment and hidingthem in hollow sticks.39 The earliest evidence of mezuzot similarin form to this nineteenth-century mezuzah comes from the 2nd and4th centuries CE.40

35 “Mezuzah,” 157. 36 Belle Rosenbaum, Upon Thy Doorports: TheLaw, the Lore, the Love of Mezuzot (New York: Jacob and BelleRosenbaum Foundation, 1995), 8. 37 Ibid. 38 Luria, 12. 39 Ibid.,12-13.

Although Jewish mystics regarded the mezuzah as an amulet thatprotects the inhabitants of its house from demons, the rabbinicleaders emphasized a more religious purpose to it.41 They hopedthat having it on each doorpost would remind Jews that there isonly one God.42 During Geonic times, mezuzot were made with smallapertures in the front of the casing. For the first time, somethingin addition to the Torah verses were written on the parchment. Onthe back of it, the word “Shaddai” would be inscribed and placed inthe case so that the word could be seen through the hole.43 Jewishmystics believed this to be a divine name.44 This name for God wasbelieved to be very influential in repelling demons.45 Thismezuzah, as well as all mezuzot since then, has been adorned with asmall hole and with the name “Shaddai” showing through. On thismezuzah, the aperture appears to be a window of the castle that itis depicting. Above the aperture is a flame-like image. It mayrepresent the eternal light, or the ner tamid, a light that isabove an ark in a synagogue and always burns. It is a reminder ofthe menorah that 40 Ibid., 6-7. 41 Joshua Trachtenberg, JewishMagic and Superstition: A Study in Folk Religion (Cleveland:Meridian Books, 1961), 146. 42 Ibid., 146. 43 Ibid., 148. 44"Shaddai," in Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology, ed.J. Gordon Melton (Detroit: Gale Group, 2001). 45 Ibid., 148

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture20

was always burning in the temple as well a reminder of God’severlasting presence.46 This may show that the castle-likestructure is representative of the Temple or a synagogue. Sincetheoretically, according to rabbinic authority, the synagoguealways had to be the tallest point in a town, the high tower in themiddle may depict the massive height. Another possibility is thatthe flames represent the burning bush. According to stories fromthe Torah, Moses was spoken to through a burning bush andinstructed by God to lead the Jews out of bondage.47 Since Moses isalso depicted on the Mezuzah, this is another strong interpretationof what the art is representing. As the Jewish communities inEurope were growing and expanding in the 18th century, the desirefor and production of fancy and artistic religious objectsincreased. Silver became much more plentiful in Europe during the15th century after the European discovery of the Americas.48Silversmiths in Eastern Europe were frequently Jewish so it madesense that beautiful Jewish art was made in silver. Jews themselveslikely made most of it.49 With the increase use of silver, too camean increase in

46 "Ner Tamid," in Encyclopaedia Judaica, ed. Michael Berenbaumand Fred Skolnik (Detroit: Macmillian Reference USA, 2007). 47“Moses,” 527. 48 Vivian B. Mann, "Spirituality and JewishCeremonial Art," Artibus et Historiae 24, no. 48 (2003). 49 CecilRoth, "Ritual Art," in Jewish Art: An Illustrated History, ed.Cecil Roth (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, INC., 1961).

innovative artistic decorations on ceremonial art.50 Thismezuzah is made mostly of silver and therefore may have been worthsomething. Therefore, it most likely was put inside a building on adoorpost to a room, not outside. Perhaps it was on the doorpost ofa synagogue. The use of Moses and Aaron can be representative ofmany things. In Italy, Jews often borrowed ideas from Catholic art.For example, a common Catholic picture was of an arch with a sainton either side. Jewish ceremonial art would replicate this idea,replacing the saints with Moses and Aaron. Similarly, it was commonfor Christian art to specifically represented Moses and David. InJewish ceremonial objects, David was replaced with Aaron.51 It ispossible that Jewish ceremonial objects in Eastern Europe wereinfluenced by Italian Jewish work or other Christian work. However,it is also possible that Moses and Aaron are depicted on thismezuzah and in other pieces of Jewish ceremonial art because oftheir centrality in the Torah. Moses is a prominent and significantfigure from the Bible. Some of the most important stories of Mosesinclude his communication with God through the burning bush, theexodus he leads out of Egypt, and his receiving of the TenCommandments on Mount Sinai. Moses was a leader of the Jewishpeople and gave them the Torah.52 His older brother Aaron was alsoan important

50 Roth, "Ritual Art;" Mann, "Spirituality and Jewish CeremonialArt." 176. 51 Shalom Sabar, "The Use of Christian Motifs inIllustrations of Jewish Marriage Contracts in Italy and ItsMeaning," Journal of Jewish Art 10(1984).

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture21

biblical figure. Not only was Aaron the chief priest of theIsraelites, but he also was Moses’ spokesperson. Moses is known asthe prophet of the bible and Aaron as the priest.53 Although Mosesreceives more praise than his brother, Aaron too is oftenglorified. In fact, according to some rabbinic literature, “Thewhole world exists only on account of the merit of Moses andAaron.”54 The importance of these two biblical figures makes them asensible choice to be represented on the case of a mezuzah, whichholds perhaps the holiest words of the Torah. Moses gave the Jewsthe Torah and Aaron was his spokesperson.

The mezuzah that I watched my father nail to my grandmother’sdoorpost many years ago was new. She had had a mezuzah at her oldhouse, but according to rule and tradition, it had to be leftbehind. When a house is sold to another Jew, the mezuzah issupposed to remain on the door.55 Since the new owners of mygrandmother’s house were members of her synagogue, she made aspecial point to leave her old mezuzah in tact. It was them whoactually gave her a new one for her new doorpost. The presence of amezuzah signifies that the home belongs to a Jew. However, thematerials used and the art on the mezuzah can also signify a lot.It can determine how much it cost, who it may have

52 "Moses," in Encyclopaedia Judaica, ed. Michael Berenbaum andFred Skolnik (Detroit: Macmillian Reference USA, 2007). 53 EdwardL. Greenstein, "Aaron," in Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. LindsayJones (Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005). 54 "Moses." 55“Mezuzah,” 157.

belonged to, and what the values of its people were. Moses andAaron, the ner tamid, and the Temple are all very important aspectsof Judaism and have been for a long time, just as the words of theShema have been inscribed on Jew’s doorposts for centuries.

Bibliography

Greenstein, Edward L. "Aaron." In Encyclopedia of Religion,edited by Lindsay Jones, 1-2. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA,2005.

Luria, Ben Zion. "Development of the Mezuzah." Dor le-dor. 5,no. 1 (1976): 6-15.

Mann, Vivian B. "Spirituality and Jewish Ceremonial Art."Artibus et Historiae 24, no. 48 (2003): 173-82.

"Mezuzah." In Encyclopaedia Judaica, edited by Michael Berenbaumand Fred Skolnik, 156-57. Detroit: Macmillian Reference USA,2007.

"Moses." In Encyclopaedia Judaica, edited by Michael Berenbaumand Fred Skolnik, 522-43. Detroit: Macmillian Reference USA,2007.

"Ner Tamid." In Encyclopaedia Judaica, edited by MichaelBerenbaum and Fred Skolnik, 88. Detroit: Macmillian Reference USA,2007.

Rosenbaum, Belle. Upon Thy Doorports: The Law, the Lore, theLove of Mezuzot. New York: Jacob and Belle Rosenbaum Foundation,1995.

Roth, Cecil. "Ritual Art." In Jewish Art: An IllustratedHistory, edited by Cecil Roth, 309-50. New York: McGraw Hill BookCompany, INC., 1961.

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture22

Sabar, Shalom. "The Use of Christian Motifs in Illustrations ofJewish Marriage Contracts in Italy and Its Meaning." Journal ofJewish Art 10 (1984): 47-63.

"Shaddai." In Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology,edited by J. Gordon Melton, 1394. Detroit: Gale Group, 2001.

Trachtenberg, Joshua. Jewish Magic and Superstition: A Study inFolk Religion. Cleveland: Meridian Books, 1961.

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture23

Mezuzah Case Eastern European c. 19th century. 14 in. x 3 ½ in.x ½ in. Copper, silver-white metal (silver plated copper),turquoise and red semi-precious stones, embossed designs;parchment. Middletown, Adath Israel Museum 2011.S.267. 4 (#55)

14 inches long, 3 ½ inches wide, and about a half inch deep, themezuzah case is made of two metals, copper and a white metal,likely a silver plated copper, soldered together. Its longrectangular body used to contain a prayer scroll is made of copper;the top and bottom of the object are made of a silver coloredmetal, and is decorated with embossed designs. The copper part isabout 2 ½ inches wide and makes up most of the object’s length. Atthe top of this piece is an ornamented silver cover, fastened witha latch, where the scroll is inserted or removed. A plate, about 3½ inches wide and 2 inches long, hangs off the bottom of the case,attached by two small metal rings on either end; a small bell isattached to the lowest point of this plate. The mezuzah containstwo semi-precious stones: one red, shaped as a rectangle on thebottom, and one oval shaped turquoise on top. The two stones areplaced symmetrically on the top and bottom of the case, surroundedby embossed leaves.

The hanging plate features embossed details; natural designsmade up of leaves, and religious phrases in Hebrew: “Shema Yisrael”are embossed, “Hear O’ Israel,” the beginning of the two verseprayer contained in the mezuzah case (Deut. 6:4-9 and 11:13-21). Inthe center of the mezuzah, an opening reveals the Hebrew word“Shaddai,” a divine name meaning “God Almighty.” While thesymmetrical and organic designs are present on all parts of themezuzah, the leaves and “harvest imagery” cover the central part ofthe object almost completely, in a symmetrical “horror vacui” styletypical of Eastern European Jewish objects. The leaves “frame” theitems of significance on the object, such as the stones and theHebrew words. Daniel Krantz ‘11

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture24

A 19TH-CENTURY MEZUZAH AS AN INTERSECTION

BETWEEN RELIGIOUS TRADITION AND A LOCAL

MOMENT

Daniel Krantz ‘11

History:

There are a few basic things known about this specificornamented mezuzah case. The ceremonial object was likely madeduring the 19th century. Based on the content and the style ofdecoration, it is also likely that it originated in Eastern Europe.The mezuzah case’s large size, in addition to the valuablematerials from which it is fashioned, indicate that it was probablyused inside a synagogue. Past these important facts, little morecan be known about the life of this particular object.

The mezuzah case, like most all Jewish ceremonial art, reflectsthe intersection of Jewish cultural and religious traditions on theone hand, and the surrounding local culture at the moment it wasproduced on the other hand. Because of the strong influence ofdominant local culture on Jewish ceremonial art, Jewish ritualobjects like this one vary greatly – in both form and use – acrosstime and space. While the mezuzah case embodies social and culturalrealities specific to the historical moment and site in which itwas produced, the object’s significance to those who used it canonly be fully understood by locating its origins in Jewishtradition, for it links 19th century Jews in Eastern Europe to acomplex tradition of Jewish ritual art dating back to commandmentsin the bible.

The historical origins of the mezuzah itself and the origins ofthe ornamented mezuzah case are different. It is through theseorigins that, in the words of Joseph Gutmann, “the customs andtheir art objects testify to an essential unity – the striving ofJews at all times to fulfill their obligation to God in the ‘beautyof holiness.’”56

While interpretations of the text have varied, the idea of themezuzah itself comes from the bible. The first meaning of the word“mezuzah” was “doorpost.” It is twice commanded (Deut. 6:9 and11:20) “and ye shall write them (the words of god) upon thedoorposts (mezuzot) of thy house and in thy gates.” Overtime, theword came to apply to the passages fixed to the doorpost instead ofthe doorpost itself.57 It is thought that in early years, theinjunction was carried out as an inscription in the doorpost – theearliest evidence for the fulfillment of this instruction datesfrom the Second Temple period.58 It was “to serve as a reminder ofGod and his commandments as well as a safeguard against evilspirits.”59

Although this 19th-century mezuzah case was made in response toa biblical commandment, the interpretation and execution of thereligious responsibility was also a product of the early modernperiod in Europe. As the required text expanded during antiquity,the mezuzah became a parchment scroll attached to the doorframe,but it was not until the Middle Ages that the

56 Joseph Gutmann, Beauty in Holiness (USA: Ktav PublishingHouse, 1970), XXVI. 57 Louis Isaac Rabinowitz, “Mezuzah” inEncyclopedia Judaica (Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 2007),156. 58Ibid., 156. 59 Gutmann, Beauty in Holiness, XXIV.

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture25

custom of encasing the parchment within a metal or woodencontainer affixed to doorposts emerged;60 moreover, it was notuntil after the 15th century at the earliest that mezuzah caseswere ornamented.61

The move to an ornamented case for the mezuzah also fit into along tradition of Jewish ceremonial beautification, or HiddurMitzvah, that has roots in ancient religious text. In understandingthis tradition, it becomes clear why the mezuzah case would be sointricately ornamented, and what the importance of the object’sbeauty was to the Jews who used it. Hiddur Mitzvah “is [the]rabbinic concept which demands that all ceremonial objects used forthe performance of religious duties in the home or synagogue beaesthetically pleasing.”62 Jewish religious authorities have longencouraged the creation of precious items, seen as part of thereligious obligation to “beautify the commandments.”63

Ceremonial art, such as the 19th century ornamented mezuzahcase, was always understood in relation to this duty – to honor andglorify the holiness of God by performing mitzvahs withaesthetically beautiful objects. From antiquity, Jews adornedtemples and sacred objects such as the Torah scroll.64 The longlasting centrality of ritual objects to Jewish art was a reflectionof interpretations of biblical text. The book of Exodus tells thestory

60 Ibid., XXIV. 61 Franz Landsberger, “The Origin of theDecorated Mezuzah,” in Joseph Gutmann ed. Beauty in Holiness (USA:Ktav Publishing House, 1970), 468-486. 62 Joseph Gutmann, Beauty inHoliness, XIV. 63 Gabrielle Sed-Rajna, Jewish Art (New York, NY:Harry Abrams Inc., 1995), 280. 64 Cecil Roth. “Ritual Art” in CecilRoth ed. Jewish Art: an Illustrated History (Israel: McGraw Hill,1961), 310.

of Bezalel, who has “the spirit if God, with wisdom,intelligence and knowledge in every craft: to devise artisticdesigns, to work in gold, silver and copper, to cut stones forsetting and to carve wood – to work in every craft” (Exodus 31:3-5). This passage not only established the value placed onartistic creation, but the connection of art and religious duty aswell. The ways Jews carried out this beautification of ceremonialobjects stems primarily from two seemingly contradictory messagesfound in the bible. While interpretations of these texts variedgreatly over time, the 19th century mezuzah case embodies both ofthe biblical messages and how Jews of the period responded to them.On the one hand, the previously discussed passage of Bezalel, whichprompted Jews to invest great resources in the creation of objectssuch that they could be beautifully fashioned from valuablematerials such those used in the mezuzah case.

On the other hand, in a biblical prohibition that has often ledto the false dismissal of the possibility of Jewish art, the SecondCommandment uncompromisingly states: “Thou shalt not make unto theea graven image, nor any manner of likeness, of anything that is inthe heavens above or on the earth below, or that is in the watersunder the earth” (Exodus 20:4-5).65 Here, it is not the materials,but the decorative content of the mezuzah that reflects the waythis commandment was interpreted. More specifically, the biblicalinjunction was often understood to prohibit any representation ofliving creatures, especially humans, but sometimes animals as well.This can be seen in the imagery on the mezuzah case, which iscomprised exclusively of natural forms. Additionally, because ofthe prominence of human figures in Christian religious 65 Roth.Jewish Art, 19.

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture26

art, the absence of human figures that we see on the mezuzahcase became, in some places, a clear identifier of Jewishobjects.66 Reflections of the Local Moment:

While the mezuzah case reflects many significant religioustraditions that span centuries of Jewish life, it also embodiesmuch about the local moment in which it was created. Thespecifically Jewish elements of the object can be found in its lifeas a ritual object, while the influence of dominant local culturecan be seen clearly in the its decorative style. The mezuzah case’sbusy symmetrical composition made of floral imagery, “dominatedby…the sense of horror vacui,” was a product of techniques andaesthetics derived from the Eastern European culture surroundingthe Jewish community.67 This quintessentially Eastern Europeanaesthetic came to define the style of Jewish ceremonial art duringthe 18th and 19th centuries. As described by Vivian Mann, and alsoclearly demonstrated on the mezuzah case, the style “emphasizedverticality and teeming compositions overlaid with the flora andfauna of the natural world.”68 The significance of the mezuzah caseis also linked with the socio-economic landscape of Eastern Europeduring the period from which it originates. Although Gentilesilversmiths made much of the silver Judaica produced in WesternEurope during and after the middle ages, it is more than likelythat this mezuzah case was

66 Ibid., 17-35. 67 Vivian B. Mann, “Ceremonial and DecorativeArt.” The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jewish Jews in Eastern Europe.http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Ceremonial_and_Decorative_Art68 Ibid.

made by Jews. In Western Europe, Jews were barred from guilds,and thus, Jewish ceremonial objects were often fashioned by localgentile silversmiths. 69 In Eastern Europe, and in Polandespecially, Jewish craftsmen were relatively privileged.70Beginning in the 17th centuries, they were allowed to practicesilversmithing, a freedom that led to the rise of many Jewishguilds being formed during the 17th and 18th century.71 Because ofthis, the mezuzah case, likely the work of Jews themselves,reflects differences around Europe in the restrictions faced byJewish artists and craftspeople. Through the intersection of Jewishreligion and the local moment discussed above, the mezuzah caselinks the lives of Jews in a specific time and place with ancienttradition. From a historical standpoint, this connection providesvaluable insight into both spheres of influence, and illustratesthe depth of the connection between Jewish and non-Jewish culturein Eastern Europe. Clearly, the aesthetic influence of dominantlocal culture was powerful in Jewish artistic endeavors. For theJews of the 19th century who actually used the ritual object, muchof the object’s significance was probably derived from the samelinkage between their own historical moment and the biblicaltraditions embodied in the mezuzah case.

69 Roth, “Ritual Art,” in Jewish Art, 311. 70 Sed-Rajna, JewishArt, 287. 71 Moses Kremer, “Jewish Artisans and Guilds in FormerPoland,” in Joseph Gutmann ed. Beauty and Holiness (USA: KtavPublishing House, 1970), 63.

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture27

Bibliography

Encyclopedia Judaica, Second Edition, Volume 14. Jerusalem:Keter Publishing House, 2007.

Frys, Ewa, Anna Iracka, and Marian Pokropek eds. Folk Art inPoland. Warsaw: Arkady, 1988.

Gutmann, Joseph, ed. Beauty in Holiness: Studies in JewishCustoms and Ceremonial Art. USA: Ktav Publishing House, 1970.

Landsberger, Franz. “The Origin of the Decorated Mezuzah,” inJoseph Gutmann ed. Beauty in Holiness. USA: Ktav Publishing House,1970, 468-486.

Kremer, Moses. “Jewish Artisans and Guilds in Former Poland,” inJoseph Gutmann ed. Beauty and Holiness . USA: Ktav PublishingHouse, 1970, 34-66.

Mann, Vivian B., and Emily D. Bilski eds. The Jewish Museum NewYork. New York: Scala Books, 1993.

Mann, Vivian B. “Ceremonial and Decorative Art.” The YIVOEncyclopedia of Jewish Jews in Eastern Europe.http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Ceremonial_and_Decorative_Art

Roth, Cecil, ed. Jewish Art: an Illustrated History. Israel:McGraw Hill, 1961.

Roth, Cecil. “Ritual Art.” in Cecil Roth ed. Jewish Art: anIllustrated History. Israel: McGraw Hill, 1961, 309-350.

Sed-Rajna, Gabrielle. Jewish Art. New York, NY: Harry AbramsInc., 1995.

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture28

A Pair of Candle Holders Warsaw, Norblin & Co., late 19th orearly 20th century, before 1915 7.5 in. tall; base 4 in. x 4 in.;top 2.6 in. in diameter. Silver-plated brass, engraved, hallmarks.Middletown, Adath Israel Museum. Given in honor of the 40th weddinganniversay of Nila and Bob Lapidus by family and friends.2011.S.267. 5a and 5b (#194)

A pair of candlestick holders, engraved with flowers on the baseand in the center of the sticks. The bottom is adorned with 3 setsof roses that act as stilts to elevate the candlesticks about aninch off of the table. They are made of silver plated brass,according to a hallmark “N” in a diamond. means “Silver plating onAlpacca.” These candlestick holders were made in the Norblin &Co. in Warsaw before 1915. A stamp as shown by the inscription

NORBLIN & CO GALW:

WARSZAWA Norblin and Co. was founded by a German goldsmith namedFilip Vorbrodt in 1809. Vorbrodt’s son in law, Vincent Norblin, wasthe son of a bronze factory in Warsaw and helped to increaseproduction of silver and bronze items along with silver plateditems in Vorbrodt’s shop. In 1865, Vorbrodt sold the factory to hisson, Norblin, one of his daughters, and his other son-in-law TeodorWerner who owned a silver shop in Warsaw. Norblin and Werner wenton to unit their factories into what is now known as Norblin &Co. Norblin & Co. survived through WWI and eventually stoppedproduction in 1939. Jessica Titlebaum ‘14

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture29

THE SABBATH LIGHTS

Jessica Titlebaum ‘14

Candles and candlestick holders, or earlier lamps, are presentat virtually every major Jewish life cycle event; they acquire asignificant and different meaning at each occasion. Women havealways had a special relationship with the candles and thecandle-lighting ceremonies, especially the ceremony associated withthe Sabbath.

The Sabbath lamp has evolved dramatically overtime. In theancient period, according to the Bible and the Mishnah, oil-lampswere used in ceremonies that required lights. These lamps weresometimes hung like chandeliers over the Sabbath table and allmeals were required to be eaten underneath or near the Sabbathlamp. These rules were most likely written for practical reasonssince the festive Sabbath meals were eaten after sundown. Therewere many laws associated with this lamp: “Wick used for Sabbathlamp should be of such material as flax, linen, or cotton, but notof hair or wool or similar materials. The oil should be of a kindthat will easily feed the wick; pitch, wax, or fat should not beused; neither should resin, which omits an ill odor, nor is itpermissible to use balsam, which produces a sweet odor….all otherkinds of oil may be used, although olive-oil is the kind mostrecommended.”72 Although candles had been invented by this timeperiod, they were 72 Isidore Singer and Cyrus Adler, "Lamp,Sabbath," The Jewish encyclopedia; a descriptive record of thehistory, religion, literature, and customs of the Jewish peoplefrom the earliest times to the present day, 12 vols. (New York andLondon,: Funk & Wagnalls, 1901), Volume 7: 601 .

usually made of the fat of unkosher animals so they could not beused. Once paraffin was invented around the year 1850, candlesbegan to replace the oil-lamps in Jewish households but, “oil wasstill regarded as the more appropriate fuel for ritual purposes,especially for the Sabbath and Hannukah lights.”73 As time went on,candles became increasingly popular in Jewish homes.

Due to the frequent use of candles throughout life cycle eventsand at religious celebrations, when in 1797 Austria imposed a newtax on the Jewish communities that the communities were unable topay, the Jewish leaders created a self-imposed candle-tax. Thesuggestion was made by a Jewish farmer named Herz Homberg,74 whointerestingly assured the Kaiser that imposing a candle tax wouldnot offend the Jewish faith.75 The law stated that every Jewishwoman who lit Sabbath candles owed, at the law’s creation, 10kreuzers, but as time moved on the sum was increased. To ensurethat the tax was being observed, the town would employ men to enterJewish homes on Friday nights to ensure that all money had beenpaid. If the woman had not paid the tax, these men would extinguishthe Sabbath candles or confiscate items such as tablecloths ordresses from the home.76 While the tax was effective in helping toeliminate the debt the Jews owed to Austria, it was

73 Fred Skolnik, Michael Berenbaum, and Thomson Gale (Firm),"Encyclopaedia Judaica," In Gale virtual reference library.(Farmington Hills, Mich. Detroit: Thomson Gale ; MacmillanReference USA, 2007), Volume 4: 429-430. 74 Skolnik, Berenbaum,“Encyclopaedia Judaica,” Volume 4: 429-430. 75 Ch Wolnerman,Aviezer Burstin, and Me ir Shim on Geshuri, Sefer Oshpitsin :Osh*viyents'im-Osh*vits (Yerushalayim: Irgun Yotse Oshpitsinbe-Yi*sra*el, 1977). 76 Yi sra el Bar*tal, The Jews of EasternEurope, 1772-1881, Jewish culture and contexts (Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005).

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture30

lifted in 1800 because it created a serious issue in thecommunity over whether candles should be sacrificed in order tolevy the tax. Still the candles were a necessary part of religiousceremonies. Although kindling lights is not commanded by the Torah,it was turned into an obligation by rabbis. The exact reasoning asto why is still debated. Scholar Macy Nulman explains, “Lightingthe Sabbath candles is one of the seven mitzvot legislated by theSages. Kindling the lights is an obligation that was imposed by theSages to maintain domestic peace so that no one in the house willtrip over a piece of wood or stone and meet with an accident in thedark.”77 Midrashic sources assert that the obligation to light thecandles on Shabbat is a punishment for females for disobeying Godin the Garden of Eden. In 1577 Benjamin Slonik wrote, “Every womanis obligated to kindle lights on the eve of each Sabbath andfestivals and this is a great mitzvah….they are obligated to keepit because they have extinguished the light of the world and havedarkened the world with their gluttony.”78 The Mishnah goes on tostate that a woman who does not observe this commandment will riskdeath during childbirth. Religious women have taken thisresponsibility very seriously. In the case of some very observantwomen, if they forget to light the Shabbat candles even one time,for the rest of their life they will always light an extra candleon Shabbat. In certain religious groups, women only begin to lightthe candles once they are married. Never the less, there alwaysseem to be at least two

77 Macy Nulman, "Candle Lighting in Jewish Ritual," Journal ofJewish Music and Liturgy 25(2002-2003). 78 Benjamin Aaron benAbraham Slonik, Seder mits*vat ha-nashim (Kraków: s.n., 1577).Translated by Edward Fram,http://www.earlymodern.org/citation.php?citKey=13&docKey=e

candles lit on Shabbat; however the reasoning for the number twois up for interpretation. A Yiddish prayer for lighting candlestranslates, “The earthly act of lighting candles corresponds to thekindling of lights in the realm of the divine.” Slonik writes,“There must always be two lights to represent the limbs of ahusband and a wife.”79 But some argued that at least two lampsshould be lighted, one to express the “zakor” (remember) of Ex. xx.and the other the “shamor” (observe) of Deut. v.”80 Although maleJews are required to observe 613 mitzvot, women pay especiallyclose attention to three positive commandments: burning a piece ofchallah dough once baked to symbolize giving of tithes to priests,to observe the laws of family purity, and lighting of candles tosymbolize the onset of Shabbat. Some interpretations of lightingthe candles include the idea of bringing to life one’s “ShabbasSoul.” Susan Starr Sered of Bar-Ilan University had an interestingtake on this concept. She writes, “Candles do seem to resemblesouls in a number of ways. Both ‘flicker’ and can go out, both(potentially) bring ‘light’ to those nearby, both disappear at‘death’, and both need to be ‘nurtured’ or ‘fed’ in order to‘grow’.”81 Using this interpretation it becomes perfectly clear whywomen are traditionally the ones to light the candles; just aswomen must take care of their children,

79 Slonik, Seder mits*vat ha-nashim.http://www.earlymodern.org/citation.php?citKey=13&docKey=e 80Singer and Adler, The Jewish encyclopedia; a descriptive record ofthe history, religion, literature, and customs of the Jewish peoplefrom the earliest times to the present day. 81 Susan Starr Sered,"Gender, Immanence, and Transcendence-The Candle-LightingRepertoire of Middle-Eastern Jews," Metaphor and Symbolici Activity6, no. 4 (1991).

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they must treat a candle as if it were a child and assist it toflourish. Some women add a candle each time they give birth to achild, further linking women’ lighting of the Shabbat candles.Women are the ultimate caretakers.

The specific candlestick holders upon which this research isbased were made in the Norblin & Co. in Warsaw before 1915 asshown by the stamp found on the bottom of each candlestick:

A Pair of Candlesticks (hallmark), 2011.S.267. 5a and 5b (#194)Another stamp—an “N” in a diamond—reveals the material. “N” means“silver plating on Alpacca.”

Norblin and Co. was founded by a German goldsmith named FilipVorbrodt in 1809. Vorbrodt’s son in law, Vincent Norblin, was theson of a bronze factory in Warsaw and helped to increase productionof silver and bronze items along with silver plated items inVorbrodt’s shop. In 1865, Vorbrodt sold the factory to his son,Norblin, one of his daughters, and his other son-in-law TeodorWerner who owned a silver shop in Warsaw. Norblin and Werner wenton to unit their factories into what is now known as Norblin &Co. Norblin & Co. survived through WWI and

eventually stopped production in 1939. There is no way to knowif these candlestick holders were used for the Shabbat ceremony, oreven if they were owned by a Jewish family. In the book Imagebefore my eyes: a photographic history of Jewish life in Poland,1864-1939 by Lucjan Dobroszycki and Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett,an old postcard displays two Jewish women lighting the candles forShabbat.82 The women are covering their eyes as they bless theSabbath lights and the candlestick holders in the picture resemblethe candlesticks being used for this project. Shabbat candlestickholders have a special place in women’s hearts because they oftenuse one pair for their whole lives which, if these candles stickswere indeed used for Shabbat, would explain the many dents,scratches, and worn out areas on the candlestick holders. Candleshave a rich history in Jewish tradition and can be found in deathceremonies, weekly services, remembrances, and most holidays. Theyhave always held deep meaning and often a mystical attraction.Although discrepancies exist as to why, if it is commanded or not(and if it is commanded by whom), women have retained theresponsibility to light the Sabbath candles every Friday night. Ina fast paced world it can be difficult to maintain a strongreligious presence in one’s life, but candles have a mysticalattraction that always keep people coming back.

82 Lucjan Dobroszycki et al., Image before my eyes : aphotographic history of Jewish life in Poland, 1864-1939 (New York:Schocken Books, 1977).

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture32

Bibliography

Bar*tal, Yi sra el. The Jews of Eastern Europe, 1772-1881,Jewish Culture and Contexts. Philadelphia: University ofPennsylvania Press, 2005.

Benbassa, Esther, and Jean-Christophe Attias. The Jews and TheirFuture : A Conversation on Judaism and Jewish Identities. London ;New York: Zed Books, 2004.

Charmé, Stuart Z. "The Gender Question and the Study of JewishChildren." Religious Education: The official journal of theReligious Education Association 101, no. 1 (2006): 21 - 39.

———. "The Gender Question and the Study of Jewish Children."Religious Education: The official journal of the ReligiousEducation Association 101, no. 1 (2006): 21-39.

Dobroszycki, Lucjan, Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, YivoInstitute for Jewish Research., and Jewish Museum (New York N.Y.).Image before My Eyes : A Photographic History of Jewish Life inPoland, 1864-1939. New York: Schocken Books, 1977.

Goldman, Ari L. The Search for God at Harvard. New York: TimesBooks/Random House, 1991.

Neuhaus, Richard John. The Chosen People in an Almost ChosenNation : Jews and Judaism in America. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B.Eerdmans Pub., 2002.

Nulman, Macy. "Candle Lighting in Jewish Ritual." Journal ofJewish Music and Liturgy 25 (2002-2003): 30-41.

Osherson, Samuel. Rekindling the Flame : The Many Paths to aVibrant Judaism. 1st ed. New York: Harcourt, 2001.

Sered, Susan Starr. "Gender, Immanence, and Transcendence-theCandle-Lighting Repertoire of Middle-Eastern Jews." Metaphor andSymbolici Activity 6, no. 4 (1991): 293-304.

Singer, Isidore, and Cyrus Adler. The Jewish Encyclopedia; aDescriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, andCustoms of the Jewish People from the Earliest Times to the PresentDay. 12 vols. New York and London,: Funk & Wagnalls, 1901.

Skolnik, Fred, Michael Berenbaum, and Thomson Gale (Firm)."Encyclopaedia Judaica." In Gale virtual reference library.Farmington Hills, Mich.

Detroit: Thomson Gale ; Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. Slonik,Benjamin Aaron ben Abraham. Seder Mits*Vat Ha-Nashim.

Kraków: s.n., 1577. Weissler, Chava. "Woman as High Priest: AKabbalistic Prayer in

Yiddish for Lighting Sabbath Candles." Jewish History 5, no. 1(1991): 9-26.

Wolnerman, Ch, Aviezer Burstin, and Me ir Shim on Geshuri. SeferOshpitsin : Osh*Viyents'im-Osh*Vits. Yerushalayim: Irgun YotseOshpitsin be-Yi*sra*el, 1977.

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture33

A Fish Spice Box Poland, nineteenth century 10 in. x 2.5 in.Silver-plated brass, cast, cut, hammered, engraved, with red glass.Middletown, Adath Israel Museum, Gift in memory of Tessie Schwarzby friends 2011.S.267. 6 (#194)

THE END OF THE SABBATH: A FISH SPICE BOX

Jonathan Sheehan ‘11

This silver-plated brass fish shaped spice box is flexible, andopens at the head. The entire body is ten inches long, two and ahalf inches high, and three quarters of an inch wide. The head istwo and a half inches by one and a half inch. The head unsnapsright above the scales, from the bottom. The fish spice box iscomposed of several different parts: a one and half inch high solidtail, a flexible seven inch body made up of twenty-six linksmeasuring two inches at its highest point, an upper portion withengraved scales, and a patterned head, with two striking red glasseyes, which contrast with the worn out silver-plated brass coloredbody. The box’s color is a faded silver-brown, though it hasgreenish rust on the outside, which would indicate oxidization ofcopper; therefore there must be some copper in the composition,suggesting brass. Green oxidation rust is also prevalent on theinside, where the spices would have been. Deviating from theuniform color are two striking red eyes, roughly the size of a pea.There are countless engraved scales on the body, which help tocreate a rough feel to the spice box. The engravings are differentfor each portion of the fish, as the tail has horizontal lines, thelinks are vertical curved lines, the scales are small fingernailsized semi-circles, and the head designed with three largersemi-circles. This careful craftsmanship by the metalworkerextended to almost every

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture34

type of spice box, whether it was in the shape of a fish, asteeple, or a local tower. Such spice boxes were used for storingspices used in the Havdalah service, which signifies the ending ofthe Sabbath. Spices are used in the Jewish tradition to evoke aremembrance of the sweetness of Shabbat, by smelling the sweetaromas in the spice box. The pleasant odors remind us of the goodtimes we had during the holiday, and counteract the sadness onefeels when the holiday has ended. Cloves were a traditional smellfor the spice box, yet some families would also add their ownspices to the mix.83 The size of this fish spice box would havebeen perfect for passing around the table, for all to smell, as theSabbath came to an end. Fish spice boxes were not the norm inregards to Havdalah spice boxes. The tradition of spice boxesdeveloped during the Middle Ages, in Germany, where spice boxesbegan to resemble local towers and buildings, many of them withclocks indicating the time when the Sabbath ends.84 In EasternEurope, many were made of filigree, in order to replicate theintricate designs of the towers.85 Unlike in Germany, GabrielleSed-Rajna writes that, “in Poland, Jewish craftsmen were relativelyprivileged, since they were authorized to practice silversmithingfrom the 17th century.”86 The 83 Elliott Horowitz. "Sabbath." InYIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, 2010. 84 Cecil Roth.Jewish Art: An Illustrated History. New York: McGraw Hill, 1961. 85Vivian Mann. "Ceremonial and Decorative Art." YIVO Encyclopedia ofJews in Eastern Europe (2010). 86 Gabrielle Sed-Rajna. Jewish Art.New York: H.N. Abrams, 1997.

creation of Jewish ritual objects, by Jewish silversmiths, couldbe why such beautiful objects as spice boxes entered Jewishreligious traditions. This fits in with the notion of “hiddurmitzvah,” which is the making of beautiful objects used forrituals. Of all the ritual objects of Polish Jewish religious life,many considered the Havdalah spice box to be the most beautifulobject. While popular from the Middle Ages on, these boxes becameespecially prevalent in 19th century Poland, and then spread toneighboring areas as well, which led to a surge in traditionalsilverware. One reason for this was that the eighteenth andespecially nineteenth century marked an era where traders anddealers realized how truly profitable art could be.87 During thistime, there was a large increase in the number of fake objects puton the market. Few books or articles discuss why Havdalah spiceboxes would have been in the shape of a fish, however fish do playa significant role in the east European Jewish tradition. Fish areeaten on Rosh Hashanah because fish multiply quickly, and Jewsrequest to be fruitful and multiply. Jews also eat fish heads, inpraying that Israel will be at the head of the nations, not thetail.88 The head of herring and carp were given to the head of thetable, as a sign of respect.89 This particular Havdalah spice boxopens at the

87 Aviva Briefel. The Deceivers: Art Forgery and Identity in the19th Century: Cornell University Press, 2006. 88 Jennifer Suss."Fish and Judaism." Stern College for Women, 2008. 89 BarbaraKirshenblatt-Gimblett,. “Food and Drink.” In YIVO Encyclopedia ofJews in Eastern Europe, 2010.

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fish head. In Germany, barbell, trout, tench, and pike were thestaple fish, while in France, herring, tunny, carp, and salmon werepreferred.90 Kalonimos Kalman Epstein, a Hasidic scholar, wrote in1842 that, “the holiest fish of all is lox, since salmon has verylarge scales.”91 Gefilte fish, today associated mainly withPassover, was a very popular dish for Eastern Europe’s Jewry. Theword “gefilte” means “stuffed,” or “filled,” and Jews hope that allof their hopes and needs will be fulfilled. Steven Rosenberg of theJerusalem Post writes that: “This rather special fish dish is notonly reserved for the Seder meal. It also features as thetraditional delicacy for the seuda shlish*t, the Shabbat afternoonmeal. The dish consists of a large ball of chopped fish seasonedwith egg and onion, and often eaten with chrane or horseradishspice. This was the essential dish for the Orthodox of the Polishshtetl, who sat around the rebbe’s Shabbat table, often with aglass of weak beer, singing and listening to his words of wisdomtill the fall of night.”92 Eric Feudenstein, a foremost Jewishnutritional scholar, has argued that the prevalence of fish inJewish diets, both for traditional and daily meals, may have hadmore to do with the fact that it was more economical than meat forPolish Jews. Gefilte 90 John Cooper, Eat and be Satisfied (Lanham:Jason Aronson Publishers, 1993) 97-100. 91 BarbaraKirshenblatt-Gimblett,. “Food and Drink.” In YIVO Encyclopedia ofJews in Eastern Europe, 2010. 92 Steven Rosenberg, “In Praise ofGefilte Fish,” Jerusalem Post, March 16, 2010, accessed April 29,2011,http://www.jpost.com/Features/InThespotlight/Article.aspx?id=171114

fish, which is composed of different types of fish, could havebeen a delicacy that was engendered by the lack of means of EasternEuropean Jews.93 This fish spice box, along with all of thewell-crafted Havdalah spice boxes, is largely considered one of themost beautiful ritual objects. With the fish, instead of a tower orsteeple, we see the versatility of ritual objects that the Jews ofPoland used. While some of the towers and steeples that existed ineastern Europe during the eighteenth century were carefullyhandcrafted with filigree, this flexible fish spice box seems moredurable and casual, and was probably less expensive. The objects’beauty has led, in recent years, to the market being flooded withfake spice boxes, which are either new (indicating they areobviously not originals), or wildly overpriced, as the value intoday’s U.S. dollars is roughly $50.94 This fish spice box is awonderful ritual object that gives us many interesting insightsinto the Havdalah tradition of Polish Jews, prior to the twentiethcentury.

93 Eric Freudenstein. “Sabbath Fish.” Judaism 29 (1980): pp.418-431. 94 EBAY, “Fake Judaica Silver Besomim Boxes – Beware.”http://reviews.ebay.com/JUDAICA-JUDAIKA-SILVER-BESOMIM-BESAMIM-JEWISH-RITUAL_W0QQugidZ10000000000744299(April 20, 2011).

Continuity and Change: Eastern European Jewish Material Culture36

A Noisemaker 19th Century (US?) Wood. L shape 8 in. x 10 in.Presented in honor of 30th wedding anniversary of Rose and PhilShapiro by family and friends 2011.S.267. 7 (# 82)

This wooden L-shaped noisemaker is 8 inches tall and 10 incheswide. The parts have been carved from a smooth, dark brown wood.The handle has a bulbous center and is made to fit easily in thehand. The bottom of the handle comes to a blunt triangular point,and from the top, a rod protrudes. Attached to the rod are thespinni